Gasparo Contarini, De officio episcopi

The Bishop has a higher goal prescribed [than does the secular ruler]. For he undertakes to instruct the city entrusted to his care in Christian principles and divine laws and to maintain it in its duty. And he directs his ward by every effort to that supreme happiness which it is foolish and at the same time wicked to hope for without Christian piety and instruction. For this reason the Bishop ought to be regarded as endowed with a far greater dignity than the civil ruler of the city.

Now the civil ruler has the care of human happiness which is a certain ordering toward the Christian virtues and that supreme happiness, of which, as we have said, the Bishop is the guide and teacher. Thus each of them should be of lofty spirit and adorned with all the virtues. First, because nature has ordained that every efficient cause brings forth an effect similar to itself. For the form and nature proper to that which acts is the principle of its activity. Whence it follows that as a governor and prince are so do they have effect on the city. Therefore that governor by no means will render a city good and blessed unless he himself also will have been endowed with such a disposition.

Add to this the fact that in the sphere of conduct everyone follows the deeds rather than the words of the instructor and believes the words truly given him by the instructor if the latter lives accordingly and teaches others that they must live in like manner. Lastly, as Plato observes, the governor of a city so orders the Republic of the city as he has in the first place managed the Republic of his soul. For in every man there is formed, as it were, a Republic out of the irascible and concupiscible as well as the rational parts of the soul. Therefore, if anyone so lives that his appetites do not turn away from the virtues, but follow in every action the lead of reason alone, he has established in his soul the best form of the Republic and that form which in a city leads to the rule of an aristocracy or of an upright prince. But if the irascible power of the soul influenced by ambition or some similar disease exercises control in our soul, and everything else in a man yields to it, he immediately brings forth a vain and warlike form of government over the people and city subject to him. If, however, inordinate desire or avarice or the other ills and pestilences of the concupiscible part outstrip everything else, thereupon a popular and finally a tyrannical city is produced to the greatest detriment of all citizens. Wherefore it especially befits the civil ruler of a city and the pastor of a Christian flock to form within themselves the best possible Republic of the soul, if they are to administer the city properly and lead it to the best of their abilities to the desired blessedness.

A far greater perfection of soul however is required of the Bishop than of the prince, both because he must guide the people of whom he has care toward the highest end and according to the most excellent Christian virtues, and because, since no one is equal to bearing so great a burden by himself, he who girds himself for such a great task must have a most purified soul and one worthy to receive divine illuminations. For although the Supreme Artificer rules this universe with an extraordinary and wonderful order and leads lower beings toward their own and natural ends by means of higher ones, as by certain instruments, yet he especially manifests this order in guiding mankind toward eternal happiness. Wherefore He uses angels as ministers for purifying and illuminating the minds of men. He manifests this more obscurely, however, in the case of those who are subject to the rule and guidance of others, but with the greatest clarity and light in the case of those who have the charge of caring for others, provided that these men themselves do not fall short and mankind itself wishes to be the source to some extent of that highest beatitude.

The Bishop moreover stands between the divine spirits and mankind. Whence it is clear that the Bishop must share in a certain sense both in the angelic nature and in human nature. Since no one can announce this about himself, even though he is adorned with every virtue, a man cannot seek the episcopacy therefore without the reproach of arrogance or a variance or ambition. Nevertheless, without any reproach one can desire that by divine providence that excellence of soul be granted him, so that he can be worthy to hold the Episcopal office. Yet by no means should anyone approach that dignity unless called by God and chosen by the Supreme Pontiff [i.e., the Pope] without any striving on his own part, just as we read that Aaron was called to the priesthood by his brother Moses. In the light of this therefore no one, however dull of mind, can fail to perceive how great a perfection and excellence of soul he should have who, we have said, must be raised above the human rank to a participation in the angelic nature.

At this point I cannot fail to deplore with all my heart the calamity of our age, when you will find very few guardians of the Christian people who spend their time in the cities entrusted to their care. In truth they think they have done enough with respect to their duty if they have handed over the administration of the city to a deputy, though they themselves obtain the revenues. And indeed they join the retinue of some great personage in the Roman Curia and busy themselves with the affairs of kingdoms and of wars. But concerning the people over whom they are placed, they do not even receive news as to whether they are making progress in the Christian religion or whether they are forsaking it, and they completely neglect and disregard the poor of their flock. Is this the conduct of a Bishop? Is this the imitation of the disciples of Christ? Is this the observance of the gospel precepts? The good Bishop therefore will do his best not to hand over the care of his flock to another, but will be away from the sheepfold as short a time as possible, unless for some reason the Pope summons him to serve in some capacity, since the Pope has the welfare of all Christendom in mind. But let the Bishop not desire that this occasion be given him, nor seek out any such post; rather let him accept a burden of this kind with the greatest reluctance. And after he has been released from it, let him not look for another, but let him return to his flock as quickly as possible.

Now we shall seek to explain to the best of our ability how a Bishop, so instructed and adorned by these virtues, should conduct himself and with what duties he should be occupied. Divine worship, in addition to the interior disposition of the soul about which we have said much above, first requires of the Bishop, as of any priest, that he say daily the divine praises and prayers contained in the ecclesiastical Office with a great lifting up of the soul to God. And it requires that no other mind distract him when he sings the divine praises, but that he endeavor with every effort both to understand what his words express and to approach them, if possible, with a certain relish of soul. The power of an exertion of that sort is certainly astonishing if we believe upright and pious men, and it is a power which no one will believe in unless he experiences it. And he will attain to this more easily if he says the divine Office not all at one time but in parts at the appropriate hours of the day, so that at each division of the day those portions of the Office are recited which have been adapted to these times by a certain holy custom. For the mind affected by the tedium of a lengthy reading is generally burdened and oppressed by aversion rather than carried to loftier heights. Aside from this the Prophet himself in the Psalms indicates that the divine praises ought to be said thus in parts. For he says, “Seven times in the day I have given praise to you,” and the prayers and hymns adapted for each division of the day clearly explain this.

For that reason I would wish (as I begin at least to conduct the Bishop from the beginning to the end of the day) that the Bishop residing in the city entrusted to his care (for we have said above that he must do this) rise up from bed before day-break and sing the early morning lauds, for these morning hymns and prayers have been adapted to this time of day. The Prophet also says, “At midnight I arose to acknowledge you.” That time happens to be very opportune for this, and that silence for the contemplation of divine things. And that early morning vigil is wonderfully advantageous to the good health of the body, if we believe that Aristotle says in Oeconomicus. After the early morning lauds when dawn draws nigh and the hour hovers between day and night I would especially desire that, when the body has been completely released from sleep and the mind elevated by saying the divine praises, some time be devoted to prayer customarily offered to God without the din of any voice and only by the lifting up of the mind and by meditation. In no way can a greater flame be added to the mind than by this awakening of the soul. Of this experience men noted for sanctity and religion say that occasionally there floods into the heart so great and clear an understanding of divine things that God is felt to be present to the mind no longer by the usual way of understanding but by some way foreign to man, and they say that such a great ardor of divine love is enkindled in the soul that the mind thus affected can think of nothing save God, nor be aware even of itself, not to mention other things, while it is aware of God. It cannot be sufficiently explained by words how much light and how much strength and force of mind come to the understanding from this illumination of the divine ray. A mind touched by such a flash of lightning is able to understand the most secret things and to be equal to any task however arduous. But may it preserve the humble and submissive soul in its duty and not encourage it to pursue by intelligence that divine secret most remote from all the mind of man can grasp. For, as it is written in Holy Scripture, he who searches out majesty is crushed by the glory.

I would not wish the Bishop to linger to satiety in that kind of contemplation, from which aversion and dullness of soul are commonly wont to arise. On that account, if at any time he feels himself not having the proper disposition for that prayer, I would not want him to undertake anything with Minerva being unwilling (as they say), that is, with an opposed nature. But for that period of time let him devote himself to studies, either of Holy Scripture or of something else pertaining to sacred literature. For let him not only consider certain unchaste studies and some superstitious sciences like magic and the knowledge of prophesying from the stars or from something of that sort alien and opposed to the interests and duties of the Bishop, but let him also strive with all his strength to banish them entirely from the city over which he presides.

When the day will have become truly light and the cover of darkness will have been driven back by the sun’s rays, then at the first hour of the day let him sing praises to God, and if he should wish to join the praises of the third hour to these, I believe he does nothing reprehensible. Immediately after this let him either celebrate himself the sacred rites of the Eucharist or at least each day be present at their celebration by another priest. Still I think that he should frequently, if not daily, celebrate the sacred rites of the Mass and consecrate and consume the most holy sacrament of the Eucharist. For when it is the duty of any priest to do this, lest he show too little thanks to God for the dignity of the priesthood, and lest he cease by the neglect of so great an oblation to relieve the souls of the living and the dead, or lest he cherish the memory of the Lord’s death with a reluctant spirit, then especially does it seem to be the duty of the Bishop, who since he is a priest ought certainly to be of the most purified spirit and open in every way to divine illumination. And he will attain to this above all by the frequent offering and use of that sacrament. Thus it is that I think the practice of certain Bishops who rarely come and partake of the heavenly banquet must be reproved. I myself have seen Pietro Barozzi, Bishop of Padua, a man who never can be praised enough for his merits, celebrating daily at dawn the solemn rites of the Mass in a private chapel with an extraordinary sanctity and dedication to God. It has also been recorded that most good Bishops have done the same, and from the frequent practice of this sacrament they have gained the most suitable and penetrating power for understanding all of the most difficult passages of Scripture and the ability by effective and rigorous preaching to incite everyone most skillfully to adopt a Christian life and Christian morals. For, as the Prophet says in the Psalm, “they will declare the memory of your sweetness.”

After finishing these tasks which are done both for the worship of God and for the elevation of the soul, promptly at the third hour of the day our Bishop will devote himself to receiving and hearing those who will approach him as a judge or as a counselor or as a helper; and to these let him show himself open and benign, yet in such a way that he does not depart from dignity. Let him settle immediately what he can, let him judge rightly and fairly, let him give sure counsel to those asking advice, and let him give assistance to those he can. And let him not cease from this task until he will have heard it all. For this duty I think must take precedence before any other. Let him indeed dismiss, as far as possible, everyone glad, no one grieving. But if this is not possible, let him try at least to mitigate their grief and disturbance of soul by humane and gentle speech. Nevertheless, I believe that he should also check occasionally with severe and harsh words the insolence of wicked and obstinate men whom you make more savage the more gently you treat them. Indeed parents are accustomed now and then to use such words with the sons they especially love. He will certainly perform all these duties as well as possible, if he is endowed with genuine, not feigned, charity and if he loves those committed to his care as sons. For that virtue will give him excellent instruction in all these duties.

I am not unaware that most Bishops delegate these tasks to a vicar. They do this (I think) from a certain weakness of soul, that is, lest they be disturbed by the burden of these matters and be not able in spirit to render service. May I never praise this withdrawal and this management of affairs through a vicar, unless the Bishop, impeded either by ill health or by involvement in some other duty which he cannot neglect without reproach, cannot himself discharge his responsibility. I do not, however, think it wrong that a Bishop have some learned and upright man as a vicar whose service he makes use of in the majority of cases. For, if weighed down by a multitude of business he himself should not be equal to the task of settling every case, or if he must visit remote places, to which he himself cannot conveniently go, it is fitting and practically necessary to make use of the services of a vicar in duties of this kind.

After concluding these affairs let him again return to the divine praises and say the sixth and ninth hours. For those hours of the waning day are appropriate for these praises. After that, if he wishes, let him attend to luncheon. In this matter I praise not sordid frugality, but indeed I censure very much magnificent pomp and lavishness and excessive elegance in the food and its service. For, by heaven, what can be seen more alien to the nature of things than to behold the shepherd of a Christian flock, for whom the life of Christ has been set up as the model, given over to feasts and doing those very things which he himself from the start ought to be censuring and correcting in others? Furthermore, what is more unseemly than to have the revenues of the Bishop, which good men had formerly bequeathed to advance the worship of God and to alleviate the needs of the poor, squandered on the magnificence of great dinners and on gluttonous feasting? The meal of the Bishop then will not be niggardly but it will be sparing, a matter more of the necessity of nature than of the pleasures of the table. But lest even then they be completely absorbed by the enjoyment of the food, I have a great deal of praise for the custom of certain Bishops who always have some spiritual reading at the luncheon or dinner. From this custom they derive, I believe, a twofold benefit. For first, as I was saying, the soul is elevated and is not weighed down by the enjoyment of food, and at the same time provision is made against a lapse into the ludicrous jesting which sometimes occurs during meals. For all these reasons I think it the wisest plan to add spiritual reading, if not for the entire luncheon or dinner, then for most of it. After luncheon a little jesting with friends who are present may be permissible, provided that it does not become insulting to anyone or obscene. But buffoonery ought very much to be avoided, and dignity should be preserved in pleasantry of speech as much as possible, and unrestrained laughter should be repressed.

Humor and relaxation should have a place with the day’s affairs and activities so that the soul actually made more cheerful by humor can better engage in the performance of every duty. Thus, after what would seem to be enough time for the relaxation of the soul and the good health of the body has been spent on jesting, the Bishop should immediately return to serious things, and, if any affairs press heavily, he should do his best to take care of them. But indeed if any time remains, it should all be spent either in the company of friends or in literary pursuits, though conversation with friends ought in no way to be at variance with the course of the Bishop’s life. therefore, let the talk be about Christian matters or about something which pertains to good morals or to the study of letters. And indeed this kind of intercourse with learned and upright man sometimes takes the place of and is preferable to a great deal of study. For generally we take much from friends, as if from living books, and it often happens that this cleaves more to the soul than what we learn from the reading of books. Still, I would not want anyone to suppose for that reason that we are praising a certain morose and weighty kind of conversation; on the contrary, we believe that affability and pleasantness ought to be present as much as possible.

But when the day moves toward sunset, we should return to the divine praises, lest our routine seem to miscarry, as it were, in the final hour of the day. Therefore, vespers should be said and the mind directed toward God. If the Bishop joins compline, that is, the last part of the Office, to this, I do not think it wrong. But if he says this last part after supper, when he is making ready to retire, I am of the opinion that he does so at the proper time. The rest of the time extending from vespers to supper I might wish to be spent, if nothing else intervenes, on reading and study, on the nature of which enough has been said by us above. At supper let him observe the same practice which he followed at luncheon, that the meal may be frugal and spiritual reading accompany it and good humor and music, if it be pleasing, bring it to a close. Nevertheless, temperance in eating will be very beneficial, if he enjoys a larger meal at supper than at luncheon, for he will have a lighter sleep, and he will be more prompt for the early morning vigil. In both cases a stomach burdened with too much food is a hindrance.

The Bishop indeed will be able to remain faithful to such duties with difficulty, unless he has provided himself with a household which is distinguished for uprightness of life and does not spurn good habits—a situation, I think, which also contributes very greatly to the reputation of the Bishop. For a member of a household who has bad morals both greatly disturbs the entire household and in most cases brings the greatest shame on it outside. Hence, great care should be exercised by the Bishop lest he admit anyone into his household who is not noteworthy for being upright. And thereby the Bishop will preserve the peaceful life of the household and at the same time will not hear ill of it abroad. He must especially take heed regarding this not only for his own sake but also lest by the bad example he does harm to his fellow citizens. For nature has ordained that other men think that anything whatsoever is permissible for them by reason of the imitation of those in command. And also he must take care that he does not admit anyone into his household who may indeed not have bad morals, but who can nevertheless justly bring suspicion of bad conduct on himself or on the head of the house or on another member. Thus the Bishop, and all the more so because his life has been set before others as an example, ought to be free not only from stain but also from every, even the slightest, suspicion of stain.

He must also take pains to keep the virtuous household he has selected to their duty and to promote to a higher level of dignity everyone according to merit and virtue. By the same token let him look to the nourishment and clothing of his servants, so that neither the dignity of the Episcopacy is neglected, nor any pomp or luxury entertained. Let him care for the members of his household when they are ill, and let him provide for their welfare in a way that takes account neither of expense nor of any inconvenience. I remember when I was living at Padua that Pietro Barozzi, a remarkable Bishop, of whom I have spoken above, most faithfully observed—besides supplying everything necessary for those who were ill in his household—that a doctor never visited a sick member of the household without himself being present. He himself took a part in the consultations of the doctors. Indeed he did this in every case, so that he neglected neither the last nor the lowliest. A charity that must be highly praised, and an action truly worthy of a Bishop! Moreover, let the Bishop’s relationship with the members of his household be founded both on dignity and on affability, lest it become a matter of either contempt or hostility. And there must be a certain skillfulness, so that the Bishop is respected and loved by his household.

There will indeed be little work left for the Bishop in governing the clergy, if he has not erred in choosing his clerics. For he will easily keep in their duty those who ever since their youth have been instructed in good qualities and upright ways. Therefore, he will see to it that the young are educated not in the classics or studies of that kind, except in so far as may be sufficient, but in Christian learning. Nevertheless, the study of Holy Scripture which at length brings to perfection all the studies of the cleric should be preferred before all. These books ought always to be at hand, so that we might say of the sacred texts what Horace says of the Greek authors: “O ye priests, day and night study the sacred books.” And let all lewd poets and the superstitious arts be kept far away from the cleric.

Indeed the effort and industry of the Bishop will accomplish all these things well, if he knows everyone of the clergy and summons them often to appear before him, and if he questions them to see how far each has progressed. And if any one has not advanced because of some natural incapacity, the Bishop at least will see to it that he does not fall back. And he will instruct the young men that he will confer honors on each one in consideration of their progress. Indeed, he will inquire whether the older clerics are wanting in their duty, and he will handle roughly those who have been. But those who have been conducting themselves well he will praise and reward, if the opportunity is given.

He will also most diligently protect the rights of these men lest the ministers of religion be treated with derision and be unable to uphold the honor and majesty of the priestly dignity. It is necessary, however, that he give more attention to caring for those priests to whom the responsibility of ruling others has been entrusted and by whom in the sacrament of Penance the sins of the people are wont to be washed away and purged as by a medicine. He will attend to this not only in the city but also in the towns and villages, granted that neither the learning nor the course of study which are required of a city priest shall also be required of a country priest. Yet I would not want the country priest to be completely ignorant of letters, but rather to be as proficient in letters as is necessary for instructing the country-folk in what every Christian ought to know. Nevertheless, I especially call to mind that good morals and a blameless life should be required of these priests. For nothing is more harmful for the Christian flock than a wicked and shameful priest.

Now let us discuss what may be called the Bishop’s public duties toward all of the people. On solemn feast days, most of which occur once a year, the Bishop should celebrate the holy sacrifice of the Mass before the entire people. He should also be present at vespers as the leader of the choir. Robed in the sacred vestments he himself should concentrate the oil of the chrism, and he should deem it his obligation to perform the other rites rather than entrusting them to others. For, as Paul says, whoever desires the Episcopacy desires work and not a quiet and idle life. It will indeed not be amiss for me to warn the bishops of our time not to neglect altogether a very ancient custom most faithfully observed by our fathers. These illustrious men were wont on feast days and sometimes daily to peach to all the people during Mass, whereby they both instructed those ignorant of Christian doctrine and exhorted all marvelously to an upright life. The religious have assumed this duty in our age because of the slothfulness of the Bishops, nevertheless this task, nay, this honor, of instructing the people belongs especially to the Bishop. Would that this custom, if not entirely, at least in some way, be revived and restored to its former state by that guardian whom we are instructing. For on every feast day and on days marked by some special occasion I would recommend that the Bishop preach and either proclaim the Gospel or develop some theme from Holy Scripture or moral philosophy for the public good. If this is not done before all the people, it should at least be done with the clergy present and attending, for it is likely that through the clergy this sermon will be carried to all. By no means should the good Bishop, in my opinion, fail to observe this obligation, unless he thinks that he is completely unsuited for performing it. In this case let him trust the judgment of others rather than his own.

His next duty after this is to keep the whole populace on the right religious path not by warnings and exhortation alone but by decrees and the sanction of the laws. This, in fact, will be most easily achieved if he avoids by what I might call a middle course two opposite vices which are frequently wont to appear among men. One of these we shall call irreligion or impiety, the other superstition. The first vice arises for the most part from certain studies and arts hostile to religion which display the name of wisdom, although they are, however, the enemies of true wisdom. The arts of this kind are the several sciences of predicting, such as magic and astrology, all of which can be recognized as a form of idolatry by those who should know that these arts attribute to stars and demons what belongs to the divine nature alone. Not less discordant with religion and entirely at logger-heads with it is a certain kind of philosophizing which nowadays has sprung up in the schools. Inexperienced youths are led astray, who though they know nothing reach a high opinion of their knowledge—on the basis of what fictions I know not—to the extent that they think nothing of others compared to themselves and consider them ignorant of the nature of things and call them only a rabble. All these most pernicious arts let the Bishop to the best of his ability drive far away from his flock. Let him order under pain of punishment that all such arts hostile to religion must be shunned and rejected by all. And to accomplish this let him zealously take the necessary steps with sanctions, as I have said, and with sermons and exhortations. The Bishop should also exercise the greatest diligence lest heresy creep in or the books of heretics be secretly introduced into his diocese. For there is no deadlier disease nor anything which more easily opens the window to atheism than heresy which, when it destroys the foundations of faith, also suddenly overturns all public order.

The other sin contrary to the above is superstition which is what I might call an exaggeration of religion, just as the former vice is what may be called a lack of religion. Therefore let all superstition be diligently destroyed, so that when the saints dwelling in heaven are invoked or their relics are venerated or likenesses of the Lord, the Most Blessed Virgin, and other saints are depicted in the churches everything be done with the greatest propriety and in good order. Such practices ought to lead the people to the worship of the one God as if they were leading them step by step by hand, so to speak. But if any abuse in these matters does creep in, it will be well for the prudent Bishop and ecclesiastic to do away with it gradually, lest, if we are carried along hastily or without consideration, we destroy the very worship of God, faith in the sacraments, and also the hierarchical order of the Church as heretics have done Consequently, let the people often be taught that in all things God must be loved and worshipped; also, that all exists because of God without whom nothing has been made; and that the saints themselves are nothing. Thus, let every action and thought proceed from Him and to Him finally return, as the Alpha and Omega. If men have recourse to the saints, let them know why they are doing it and in addition what has been most wisely decreed and explained by the Councils. But if anyone, either because of avarice or for some other reason, should make wrong use of relics or sacred images, let such plagues at once be kept far from the Church of God and let a heavy penalty be imposed, lest Christian purity be corrupted by these perversions.

When the error of superstition and the sin of impiety have been avoided, the people can be easily kept in the right religious path. Nevertheless, let the Bishop take care that everyone frequent the sacraments of Penance and the Eucharist at least at the proper times, and let him inquire about this of the priests in charge of the districts of the city and the villages. If anyone fails in this obligation, let the Bishop first endeavor, having summoned the offender before him, to call him back to his duty and the right path of piety by persuasion and gentle rebuking. But if he observes that anyone obstinately persists in his wrongdoing and refuses to be corrected, then let him judge him guilty before others and subject to the ecclesiastical fines and censures, lest others also be infected by contact with the evil of that man.

SOURCE: The Catholic Reformation, ed. John C. Olin (New York: Fordham University Press, 1992), pp. 93-106 (excerpts). THIS SOURCE APPEARS HERE FOR THE EXCLUSIVE USE OF STUDENTS IN HIS-221. ANY OTHER USE MAY VIOLATE COPYRIGHT LAWS.